masih amatir

Kamis, 03 November 2011

MANAJEMEN KOPERASI


Pendahuluan

Dalam usaha pemulihan krisis ekonomi Indonesia dewasa ini, sesungguhnya
koperasi mendapatkan peluang (opportunity) untuk tampil lebih eksis. Krisis ekonomi
yang diawali dengan krisis nilai tukar dan kemudian membawa krisis hutang luar
negeri, telah membuka mata semua pemerhati ekonomi bahwa "fundamental
ekonomi" yang semula diyakini kesahihannya, ternyata hancur lebur. Para pengusaha
besar konglomerat dan industri manufaktur yang selama ini diagung-agungkan
membawa pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat pada rata-rata 7% pertahun, ternyata
hanya merupakan wacana. Sebab, ternyata kebesaran mereka hanya ditopang oleh
hutang luar negeri sebagai hasil perkoncoan dan praktik mark-up ekuitas, dan tidak
karena variabel endogenous (yang tumbuh dari dalam) (Manurung, 2000).
Setelah dicanangkan oleh pendiri negara kita, bahwa koperasi merupakan
lembaga ekonomi yang cocok dengan spirit masyarakatnya, yaitu azas kekeluargaan.
Bahkan disebutkan oleh Hadhikusuma (2000). Kekeluargaan adalah azas yang
memang sesuai dengan jiwa dan kepribadian bangsa Indonesia dan telah berurat akar
dalam jiwa bangsa Indonesia. Namun sampai saat ini dalam kenyataannya peran
koperasi untuk berkontribusi dalam perekonomian Indonesia belum mencapai taraf
signifikan. Banyaknya masalah yang menghambat perkembangan koperasi di
Indonesia menjadi problematik yang secara umum masih dihadapi.
Pencapaian misi mulia koperasi pada umumnya masih jauh dan idealisme
semula. Koperasi yang seharusnya mempunyai amanah luhur, yaitu membantu
pemerintah untuk mewujudkan keadilan ekonomi dan sosial, belum dapat menjalani
peranannya secara maksimal. Membangun koperasi menuju kepada peranan dan
kedudukannya yang diharapkan merupakan hai yang sangat sulit, walau bukan
merupakan hal yang tidak mungkin.
OIeh karena itu, tulisan ini tetap pada satu titik keyakinan, bahwa seburuk
apapun keadaan koperasi saat mi, kalau semua komponen bergerak bersama, tentunya
ada titik terang yang diharapkan muncul. Juga diharapkan mampu menjadi pencerahan
bagi kita semua, tentang bagaimana koperasi dikembalikan kepada cita-cita para
pendiri bangsa mi, menjadikan kegiatan ekonomi menjadi milik semua rakyat. Dengan
demikian, kesenjangan ekonomi yang merembet pada kesenjangan sosial dan
penyakitpenyakit masyarakat Iainnya dapat dikurangi (Nuhung, 2002).
Citra koperasi di masyarakat saat ini identik dengan badan usaha marginal,
yang hanya bisa hidup bila mendapat bantuan dari pemerintah. Hal ini sebenarnya
tidak sepenuhnya benar, karena banyak koperasi yang bisa menjalankan usahanya
tanpa bantuan pemerintah. Tantangan koperasi ke depan sebagai badan usaha adalah
harus mampu bersaing secara sehat sesuai etika dan norma bisnis yang berlaku .
Pendapat mengenai keberadaan unit usaha koperasi dalam sistem ekonomi
Indonesia, adalah: Pertama adalah yang mengutarakan perlunya mengkaji ulang
apakah koperasi masih perlu dipertahankan keberadaannya dalam kegiatan ekonomi.
Secara implisit pendapat ini menghendaki agar kita tidak perlu mempertahankan
koperasi sebagai unit usaha ekonomi. Pendapat ini mewakili pemikiran kanan baru
(new-right) yang tidak begitu mempermasalahkan konsentrasi ekonomi di kalangan
segelintir orang dalam masyarakat dan tidak menghendaki adanya pertanda pandangan
populis di dalam masyarakat. Kedua, adalah pendapat yang memandang bahwa unit
usaha koperasi dipandang perlu untuk dipertahankan sekadar untuk tidak dianggap
menyeleweng dari UUD 1945.
Pendapat inilah yang selama ini hidup dalam pemikiran bara birokrat
pemerintahan. Ketiga, adalah pendapat yang menganggap bahwa koperasi sebagai
organisasi ekonomi rakyat yang harus dikembangkan menjadi unit usaha yang kukuh
dalam rangka proses demokratisasi ekonomi.
Pendapat ini mendasarkan pada semangat dan cita-cita kemerdekaan Indonesia
yang ingin mengubah hubungan dialektik ekonomi, dari dialektik kolonial pada jaman
penjajahan kepada dialektik hubungan ekonomi yang menjadikan rakyat sebagai
kekuatan ekonomi (Sritua, 1997).
Tantangan bagi dunia usaha, terutama pengembangan Usaha Kecil
Menengah , mencakup aspek yang luas, antara lain : peningkatan kualitas SDM
dalam hal kemampuan manajemen, organisasi dan teknologi, kompetensi
kewirausahaan, akses yang lebih luas terhadap permodalan, informasi pasar yang
transparan, faktor input produksi lainnya, dan iklim usaha yang sehat yang
mendukung inovasi, kewirausahaan dan praktek bisnis serta persaingan yang sehat
(Haeruman, 2000).
Pengertian Koperasi
Menurut Undang-undang No. 25/1992, koperasi adalah badan usaha yang
beranggotakan orang-perorangan atau badan hukum Koperasi dengan melandaskan
kegiatannya berdasarkan prinsip Koperasi sekaligus sebagai gerakan ekonomi rakyat
yang berdasarkan asas kekeluargaan (Sitio dan Tamba, 2001). Koperasi sebagai
organisasi ekonomi yang berwatak sosial sebagai usaha bersama berdasar asas-asas
kekeluargaan dan gotong royong (Widiyanti, 94). Ropke menyatakan makna koperasi
dipandang dari sudut organisasi ekonomi adalah suatu organisasi bisnis yang para
pemilik/anggotanya adalah juga pelanggan utama perusahaan tersebut. Kriteria
identitas koperasi akan merupakan dalil/prinsip identitas yang membedakan unit usaha
koperasi dari unit usaha lainnya (Hendar dan Kusnadi, 1999).
Elemen yang terkandung dalam koperasi menurut International Labour
Organization (Sitio dan Tamba, 2001) adalah:
a. perkumpulan orang-orang,
b. penggabungan orang-orang tersebut berdasarkan kesukarelaan,
c. terdapat tujuan ekonomi yang ingin dicapai,
d. koperasi yang dibentuk adalah suatu organisasi bisnis (badan usaha) yang
diawasi dan dikendalikan secara demokratis,
e. terdapat kontribusi yang adil terhadap modal yang dibutuhkan,
f. anggota koperasi menerima resiko dan manfaat secara seimbang.
Prinsip-Prinsip Koperasi
Perkoperasian adalah segala sesuatu yang menyangkut kehidupan Koperasi.
Gerakan Koperasi adalah keseluruhan organisasi Koperasi dan kegiatan perkoperasian
yang bersifat terpadu menuju tercapainya cita-cita bersama Koperasi. Perkoperasian di
Indonesia diatur dengan Undang-Undang Nomor 25 Tahun 1992 yang berlandaskan
Pancasila dan UUD 1945, dan bertujuan memajukan kesejahteraan anggota pada
khususnya dan masyarakat pada umumnya serta ikut membangun tatanan
perekonomian nasional dalam rangka mewujudkan masyarakat yang maju, adil, dan
makmur (Koperindo.com, 2001 )
Prinsip-prinsip atau sendi-sendi dasar Koperasi menurut UU No. 12 tahun 1967,
adalah sebagai berikut.
a.Sifat keanggotaannya sukarela dan terbuka untuk setiap warg negara Indonesia
b.Rapat anggota merupakan kekuasaan tertinggi sebagai pencerminan demokrasi
dalam koperasi
c.Pembagian SHU diatur menurut jasa masing-masing anggota
d.Adanya pembatasan bunga atas modal
e.Mengembangkan kesejahteraan anggota khususnya dan masya rakat pada
umumnya
f.Usaha dan ketatalaksanaannya bersifat terbuka
g.Swadaya, swakarta, dan swasembada sebagai pencerminan prinsip dasar percaya
pada diri sendiri
Menurut UU No. 25 Tahun 1992, prinsip-prinsip koperasi adalah sebagai
berikut:
Prinsip-prinsip koperasi adalah:
a. Keanggotaan bersifat sukarela dan terbuka.
b. Pengelolaan dilakukan secara demokratis.
c. Pembagian sisa hasil usaha dilakukan secara adil sebanding dengan besarnya
jasa usaha masing-masing anggota.
d. Pemberian balas jasa tidak terkait dengan besarnya setoran modal.
e. Kemandirian
f. Pendidikan koperasi
g. Kerja sama antar koperasi
Permasalahan Koperasi
Untuk mampu bertahan di era globalisasi tentunya koperasi harus instropeksi
atas kondisi yang ada pada dirinya.. Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa hanya dengan
mengenal jati diri koperasi secara benar maka kemungkinan bersaing dengan badan
usaha lain akan terbuka. Jelas bahwa ditinjau dari sudut bentuk organisasinya, maka
organisasi koperasi adalah SHO (self-help organisasi).
Intinya koperasi adalah badan usaha yang otonom. Problemnya adalah
otonomi koperasi sejauh ini menjadi tanda tanya besar. Karena bantuan pemerintah
yang begitu besar menjadikan otonomi koperasi sulit terwujud. Dalam dataran
konsepsional otonomi Koperasijuga mengandung implikasi bahwa badan usaha
koperasi seharusnya lepas dari lembaga pemerintah, artinya organisasi koperasi bukan
merupakan lembaga yang dilihat dari fungsinyaadalah alat administrasi langsung dari
pemerintah, yang mewujudkan tujuan-tujuan yang telah diputuskan dan ditetapkan
oleh pemerintah (Rozi dan Hendri, 1997).
Masalah mutu sumberdaya manusia pada berbagai perangkat organisiasi
koperasi menjadi masalah yang menonjol dan mendapat sorotan. Subyakto (1996)
mempunyai pandangan bahwa, kendala yang sangat mendasar dalam pemberdayaan
koperasi dan usaha kecil adalah masalah sumberdaya manusia. Pengurus dan
karyawan secara bersama-sama -ataupun saling menggantikan- menjadi pelaku
organisasi yang aktif, dan menjadi front line staff dalam melayani anggota koperasi.
Keadaan saling menggantikan seperti itu, banyak terjadi dalam praktik
manajemen koperasi di Indonesia. Kinerja front line staff memiliki dampak terhadap
kepuasan pihak-pihak yang memiliki kaitan dengan pengembangan koperasi, antara
lain adalah anggota sebagai pemilik dan pemanfaat, pemerintah sebagai pembina
serta pihak mitra bisnis yang berperan sebagai pemasok, distributor, produsen,
penyandang dana dan lain sebagainya.
Manajemen Koperasi
Koperasi merupakan lembaga yang harus dikelola sebagaimana layaknya lembaga
bisnis. Di dalam sebuah lembaga bisnis diperlukan sebuah pengelolaan yang efektif
dan efisien yang dikenal dengan manajemen. Demikian juga dalam badan usaha
koperasi, manajemen merupakan satu hak yang harus ada demi terwujudnya tujuan
yang diharapkan.
Prof. Ewell Paul Roy mengatakan bahwa manajemen koperasi melibatkan 4
(empat) unsur yaitu: anggota, pengurus, manajer, dan karyawan. Seorang manajer
harus bisa menciptakan kondisi yang mendorong para karyawan agar
mempertahankan produktivitas yang tinggi. Karyawan merupakan penghubung antara
manajemen dan anggota pelanggan (Hendrojogi, 1997).
Menurut Suharsono Sagir, sistem manajemen di lembaga koperasi harus
mengarah kepada manajemen partisipatif yang di dalamnya terdapat kebersamaan,
keterbukaan, sehingga setiap anggota koperasi baik yang turut dalam pengelolaan
(kepengurusan usaha) ataupun yang di luar kepengurusan (angota biasa), memiliki
rasa tanggung jawab bersama dalam organisasi koperasi (Anoraga dan Widiyanti,
1992).
A.H. Gophar mengatakan bahwa manajemen koperasi pada dasarnya dapat
ditelaah dan tiga sudut pandang, yaitu organisasi, proses, dan gaya (Hendar dan
Kusnadi, 1999).
Dari sudut pandang organisasi, manajemen koperasi pada prinsipnya terbentuk dan
tiga unsur: anggota, pengurus, dan karyawan. Dapat dibedakan struktur atau alat
perlengkapan onganisasi yang sepintas adalah sama yaitu: Rapat Anggota, Pengurus,
dan Pengawas. Untuk itu, hendaknya dibedakan antara fungsi organisasi dengan
fungsi manajemen. Unsur Pengawas seperti yang terdapat pada alat perlengkapan
organisasi koperasi, pada hakekatnya adalah merupakan perpanjangan tangan dan
anggota, untuk mendampingi Pengurus dalam melakukan fungsi kontrol sehari-hari
terhadap jalannya roda organisasi dan usaha koperasi. Keberhasilan koperasi
tergantung pada kerjasama ketiga unsur organisasi tersebut dalam mengembangkan
organisasi dan usaha koperasi, yang dapat memberikan pelayanan sebaik-baiknya
kepada anggota.
Dan sudut pandang proses, manajemen koperasi lebih mengutamakan demokrasi
dalam pengambilan keputusan. Istilah satu orang satu suara (one man one vote) sudah
mendarah daging dalam organisasi koperasi. Karena itu, manajemen koperasi ini
sering dipandang kurang efisien, kurang efektif, dan sangat mahal.
Terakhir, ditinjau dan sudut pandang gaya manajemen (management style),
manajemen koperasi menganut gaya partisipatif (participation management), di mana
posisi anggota ditempatkan sebagai subjek dan manajemen yang aktif dalam
mengendalikan manajemen perusahaannya.
Sitio dan Tamba (2001) menyatakan badan usaha koperasi di Indonesia memiliki
manajemen koperasi yang dirunut berdasarkan perangkat organisasi koperasi, yaitu:
Rapat anggota, pengurus, pengawas, dan pengelola.
Telah diuraikan sebelumnya bahwa, watak manajemen koperasi ialah gaya
manajemen partisipatif. Pola umum manalemen koperasi yang partisipatif tersebut
menggambarkan adanya interaksi antar unsur manajemen koperasi. Terdapat
pembagian tugas (job description) pada masing-masing unsur. Demikian pula setiap
unsur manajemen mempunyai lingkup keputusan (decision area) yang berbeda,
kendatipun masih ada lingkup keputusan yang dilakukan secara bersama (shared
decision areas)
Adapun lingkup keputusan masing-masing unsur manajemen koperasi adalah
sebagai berikut (Sitio dan Tamba, 2001):
a.Rapat Anggota merupakan pemegang kuasa tertinggi dalam menetapkan
kebijakan umum di bidang organisasi, manajemen, dan usaha koperasi.
Kebijakan yang sifatnya sangat strategis dirumuskan dan ditetapkan pada
forum Rapat Anggota. Umumnya, Rapat Anggota diselenggarakan sekali
setahun.
b.Pengurus dipilih dan diberhentikan oleh rapat anggota. Dengan demikian,
Pengurus dapat dikatakart sebagai pemegang kuasa Rapat Anggota dalam
mengoperasionalkan kebijakan-kebijakan strategis yang ditetapkan Rapat
Anggota. Penguruslah yang mewujudkan arah kebijakan strategis yang
menyangkut organisasi maupun usaha.
c.Pengawas mewakili anggota untuk melakukan pengawasan terhadap
pelaksanaan kebijakan yang dilaksanakan oleh Pengurus. Pengawas dipilth
dan diberhentikan oleh Rapat Anggota. OIeh sebab itu, dalam struktur
organisasi koperasi, posisi Pengawas dan Pengurus adalah sama.
d.Pengelola adalah tim manajemen yang diangkat dan diberhentikan oleh
Pengurus, untuk melaksanakan teknis operasional di bidang usaha. Hubungan
Pengelola usaha (managing director) dengan pengurus koperasi adalah
hubungan kerja atas dasar perikatan dalam bentuk perjanjian atau kontrak
kerja.
Kewirausahaan Koperasi
Secara definitif seorang wirausaha termasuk wirausaha koperasi adalah orang
yang mempunyai kemampuan melihat dan menilai kesempatan-kesempatan bisnis,
mengumpulkan sumber-sumber daya yang dibutuhkan guna mengambil keuntungan
darinya dan mengambil tindakan yang tepat guna memastikan sukses (Meredith, et al,
1984).
Para wirausaha koperasi adalah orang yang mempunyai sikap mental positif
yang berorientasi pada tindakan dan mempunyai motivasi tinggi dalam mengambil
risiko pada saat mengejar tujuannya. Tetapi mereka juga orang-orang yang cermat dan
penuh perhitungan dalam mengambil keputusan tentang sesuatu yang hendak
dikerjakan, Setiap mengambil keputusan tidak didasarkan pada metode coba-coba,
melainkan dipelajari setiap peluang bisnis dengan mengumpulkan informasi-informasi
yang berharga bagi keputusan yang hendak dibuat.
Selanjutnya menurut Meredith (1984) para wirausaha (termasuk wirausaha
koperasi) mempunyai ciri dan watak yang berlainan dengan individu kebanyakan.
Ciri-ciri dan watak tersebut dijelaskan sebagai berikut:
a. Mempunyai kepercayaan yang kuat pada diri sendiri.
b. Berorientasi pada tugas dan basil yang didorong oleh kehutuhan untuk
herprestasi, berorientasi pada keuntungan, mempunyai ketekunan dan
ketabahan, mempunyni tekad kerja keras, dan mempunyai energi inisiatif.
c. Mempunyai kemampuan dalam mengambil risiko dan mengambil keputusan- keputusan     secara cepat dan cermat.
d. Mempunyai jiwa kepemimpinan, suka bergaul dan suka menanggapi saransaran
dan kritik.
e. Berjiwa inovatif, kreatif dan tekun.
f. Berorientasi ke masa depan.
Kewirausahaan koperasi adalah suatu sikap mental positif dalam berusaha secara
koperatif dengan mengambil prakarsa inovatif serta keberanian mengambil risiko dan
berpegang teguh pada prinsip identitas koperasi dalam mewujudkan terpenuhinya
kebutuhan nyata serta peningkatan kesejahteraan bersama (Hendar dan Kusnadi,
1999). Dan definisi tersebut terkandung beberapa unsur yang patut diperhatikan
seperti penjelasan di bawah ini.
Kewirausahaan koperasi merupakan sikap mental positif dalam berusaha secara
koperatif. Ini berarti wirausaha koperasi (orang yang melaksanakan kewirausahaan
koperasi) harus mempunyai keinginan untuk memajukan organisasi koperasi, baik itu
usaha koperasi maupun usaha anggotanya. Usaha itu harus dilakukan secara koperatif
dalam arti setiap kegiatan usaha koperasi harus mementingkan kebutuhan anggotanya.
Tugas utama wirausaha koperasi adalah mengambil prakarsa inovatif, artinya
berusaha mencari, menemukan dan memanfaatkan peluang yang ada demi
kepentingan bersama (Drucker, 1988). Bertindak inovatif tidak hanya dilakukan pada
saat memulai usaha tetapi juga pada saat usaha itu berjalan, bahkan pada saat usaha
koperasi berada dalam kemunduran. Pada saat memulai usaha agar koperasi dapat
tumbuh dengan cepat dan menghasilkan. Kemudian pada saat usaha koperasi berjalan,
agar koperasi paling tidak dapat mempertahankan eksistensi usaha koperasi yang
sudah berjalan dengan lancar. Perihal yang lehih penting adalah tindakan inovatif pada
saat usaha koperasi berada dalam kemunduran (stagnasi). Pada saat itu wirausaha
koperasi diperlukan agar koperasi berada pada siklus hidup yang baru.
Wirausaha koperasi harus mempunyai keberanian mengambil risiko. Karena
dunia penuh dengan ketidakpastian, sehingga hal-hal yang diharapkan kadang-kadang
tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan yang terjadi di lapangan. Oleh karena itu dalam
menghadapi situasi semacam itu diperlukan seorang wirausaha yang mempunyai
kemampuan mengambil risiko. Tentu saja pengambilan risiko ini dilakukan dengan
perhitungan-perhitungan yang cermat.
Pada koperasi risiko-risiko yang ditimbulkan oleh ketidakpastian sedikit
terkurangi oleh orientasi usahanya yang lebih banyak di pasar internal. Pasar internal
memungkinkan setiap usaha menjadi beban koperasi dan anggotanya karena koperasi
adalah milik anggota. Oleh karena itu secara nalar tidak mungkin anggota merugikan
koperasinya. Kalaupun terjadi kerugian dalam kegiatan operasional, maka risiko
tersebut akan ditanggung bersama-sama, sehingga risiko per anggota menjadi relatif
kecil.
Tetapi bila orientasi usaha koperasi lebih banyak ke pasar eksternal seperti KUD,
maka risiko yang ditimbulkan oleh ketidakpastian akan mempunyai bobot yang sama
dengan risiko yang dihadapi oleh pesaingnya. Dalam kondisi ini tugas wirausaha
koperasi lebih berat dibanding dengan wirausaha koperasi yang lehih banyak
orilentasinya di pasar internal.
Kegiatan wirausaha koperasi harus berpegang teguh pada prinsip identitas
koperasi, yaitu anggota sebagai pemilik dan, sekaligus sebagai pelanggan.
Kepentingan anggota harus diutamakan agar anggota mau berpartisipasi aktif terhadap
koperasi. Karena itu wirausaha koperasi bertugas meningkatkan pelayanan dengan
jalan menyediakan berbagai kebutuhan anggotanya.
Tujuan utama setiap wirausaha koperasi adalah memenuhi kebutuhan nyata
anggota koperasi dan meningkatkan kesejahteraan bersama. Tugas seorang wirausaha
koperasi sebenamya cukup berat karena banyak pihak yang berkepentingan di
lingkungan koperasi, seperti anggota, perusahaan koperasi, karyawan, masyarakat di
sekitarnya, dan lain-lain. Seorang wirausaha koperasi terkadang dihadapkan pada
masalah konflik kepentingan di antara masing-masing pihak. Bila ia lebih
mementingkan usaha koperasi, otomatis ia harus berorientasi di pasar eksternal dan
hal ini berarti mengurangi nilai pelayanan terhadap anggota. Sebaliknya bila
orientasinya di pasar internal dengan mengutamakan kepentingan anggota, maka yang
menjadi korban adalah pertumbuhan koperasi.
Kewirausahaan dalam koperasi dapat dilakukan oleh anggota, manajer, birokrat
yang berperan dalam pembangunan koperasi dan katalis, yaitu orang yang peduli
terhadap pengembangan koperasi. Keempat jenis wirausaha koperasi ini tentunya
mempunyai kebebasan bertindak dan insentif yang berbeda-beda yang selanjutnya
menentukan tingkat efektivitas yang berbeda-beda pula.























Kamis, 28 April 2011

WHO SAYS

it lyric is so nice to remind us if we are perfect..



#I wouldn't want to be anybody else

( Hey! )


You made me insecure

Told me I wasn't good enough
But who are you to judge
When you're a diamond in the rough
I'm sure you got some things
You'd like to change about yourself
But when it comes to me
I wouldn't want to be anybody else

Na na na na na

Na na na na na na
I'm no beauty queen
I'm just beautiful me

La na na na na na na na na!

La na na na na na na na na!

You've got every right

To a beautiful life
( C'mon! )


Who says

Who says you're not perfect
Who says you're not worth it
Who says you're the only one that's hurting
Trust me
That's the price of beauty
Who says you're not pretty
Who says you're not beautiful
Who says


It's such a funny thing

How nothing's funny when it's you
You tell 'em what you mean
But they keep whiting out the truth

It's like a work of art

That never gets to see the light
Keep you beneath the stars
Won't let you touch the sky



La na na na na na na na na!

La na na na na na na na na!

I'm no beauty queen

I'm just beautiful me

La na na na na na na na na!

La na na na na na na na na!


You've got every right

To a beautiful life
C'mon

[Chorus]


Who says

Who says you're not perfect
Who says you're not worth it
Who says you're the only one that's hurting
Trust me
That's the price of beauty
Who says you're not pretty
Who says you're not beautiful

Who says

Who says you're not star potential
Who says you're not presidential
Who says you can't be in movies
Listen to me, listen to me
Who says you don't pass the test
Who says you can't be the best
Who said, who said
Won't you tell me who said that
( Yeah, WHO SAID!? )

Who says

Who says you're not perfect
Who says you're not worth it
Who says you're the only one that's hurting
Trust me
That's the price of beauty
Who says you're not pretty
Who says you're not beautiful
Who says(x2)

Selasa, 26 April 2011

BATIK

It would be impossible to visit or live in Indonesia and not be exposed to one of the country's most highly developed art forms, batik. On your first visit to a batik store or factory you will undoubtedly experience an overwhelming stimulation of the senses - due to the many colors, patterns and the actual smell of batik. Only through repeated visits and a bit of study will the types of designs and their origins become apparent.
The word batik is thought to be derived from the word 'ambatik' which translated means 'a cloth with little dots'. The suffix 'tik' means little dot, drop, point or to make dots. Batik may also originate from the Javanese word 'tritik' which describes a resist process for dying where the patterns are reserved on the textiles by tying and sewing areas prior to dying, similar to tie dye techniques. Another Javanese phase for the mystical experience of making batik is “mbatik manah” which means “drawing a batik design on the heart”.

A Brief History

Although experts disagree as to the precise origins of batik, samples of dye resistance patterns on cloth can be traced back 1,500 years ago to Egypt and the Middle East. Samples have also been found in Turkey, India, China, Japan and West Africa from past centuries. Although in these countries people were using the technique of dye resisting decoration, within the textile realm, none have developed batik to its present day art form as the highly developed intricate batik found on the island of Java in Indonesia.
King Kertajasa East Java 1294-1309Although there is mention of 'fabrics highly decorated' in Dutch transcripts from the 17th century, most scholars believe that the intricate Javanese batik designs would only have been possible after the importation of finely woven imported cloth, which was first imported to Indonesia from India around the 1800s and afterwards from Europe beginning in 1815. Textile patterns can be seen on stone statues that are carved on the walls of ancient Javanese temples such as Prambanan (AD 800), however there is no conclusive evidence that the cloth is batik. It could possibly be a pattern that was produced with weaving techniques and not dying. What is clear is that in the 19th century batik became highly developed and was well ingrained in Javanese cultural life.
Some experts feel that batik was originally reserved as an art form for Javanese royalty. Certainly it's royal nature was clear as certain patterns were reserved to be worn only by royalty from the Sultan's palace. Princesses and noble women may have provided the inspiration for the highly refined design sense evident in traditional patterns. It is highly unlikely though that they would be involved in any more than the first wax application. Most likely, the messy work of dyeing and subsequent waxings was left to court artisans who would work under their supervision.
Javanese royalty were known to be great patrons of the arts and provided the support necessary to develop many art forms, such as silver ornamentation, wayang kulit (leather puppets) and gamelan orchestras. In some cases the art forms overlap. The Javanese dalang (puppeteer) not only was responsible for the wayang puppets but was also Tambil Miring Designan important source of batik patterns. Wayang puppets are usually made of goat skin, which is then perforated and painted to create the illusion of clothing on the puppet. Used puppets were often sold to eager ladies who used the puppets as guides for their batik patterns. They would blow charcoal through the holes that define the patterns of clothing on the puppets, in order to copy the intricate designs onto the cloth.
Other scholars disagree that batik was only reserved as an art form for royalty, as they also feel its use was prevalent with the rakyat, the people. It was regarded an important part of a young ladies accomplishment that she be capable of handling a canting (the pen-like instrument used to apply wax to the cloth) with a reasonable amount of skill, certainly as important as cookery and other housewifery arts to Central Javanese women.

Selection and Preparation of the Cloth for Batik

Natural materials such as cotton or silk are used for the cloth, so that it can absorb the wax that is applied in the dye resisting process. The fabrics must be of a high thread count (densely woven). It is important that cloth of high quality have this high thread count so that the intricate design qualities of batik can be maintained.
Applying wax with a canting to create BatikThe cloth that is used for batik is washed and boiled in water many times prior to the application of wax so that all traces of starches, lime, chalk and other sizing materials are removed. Prior to the implementation of modern day techniques, the cloth would have been pounded with a wooden mallet or ironed to make it smooth and supple so it could best receive the wax design. With the finer machine-made cotton available today, the pounding or ironing processes can be omitted. Normally men did this step in the batik process.
Strict industry standards differentiate the different qualities of the cloth used today, which include Primissima (the best) and Prima. The cloth quality is often written on the edge of the design. A lesser quality cloth which is often used in Blaco.

Batik Design Tools

Although the art form of batik is very intricate, the tools that are used are still very simple. The canting, believed to be a purely Javanese invention, is a small thin wall spouted copper container (sometimes called a wax pen) that is connected to a short bamboo handle. Normally it is approximately 11 cm. in length. The copper container is filled with melted wax and the artisan then uses the canting to draw the design on the cloth.
Canting have different sizes of spouts (numbered to correspond to the size) to achieve varied design effects. The spout can vary from 1 mm in diameter for very fine detailed work to wider spouts used to fill in large design areas. Dots and parallel lines may be drawn with canting that have up to 9 spouts. Sometimes a wad of cotton is fastened over the mouth of the canting or attached to a stick that acts as a brush to fill in very large areas.

Wajan

Wajan is used to melt the waxThe wajan is the container that holds the melted wax. It looks like a small wok. Normally it is made of iron or earthenware. The wajan is placed on a small brick charcoal stove or a spirit burner called an 'anglo'. The wax is kept in a melted state while the artisan is applying the wax to the cloth.

Wax

Different kinds and qualities of wax are used in batik. Common waxes used for batik consist of a mixture of beeswax, used for its malleability, and paraffin, used for its friability. Resins can be added to increase adhesiveness and animal fats create greater liquidity.
Blowing into the Canting keeps the wax flowing freelyThe best waxes are from the Indonesian islands of Timor, Sumbawa and Sumatra; three types of petroleum-based paraffin (white, yellow and black) are used. The amounts mixed are measured in grams and vary according to the design. Wax recipes can be very closely guarded secrets. Varying colors of wax make it possible to disguise different parts of the pattern through the various dying stages. Larger areas of the pattern are filled in with wax that is cheaper quality and the higher quality wax is used on the more intricately detailed sections of the design.
The wax must be kept at the proper temperature. A wax that is too cool will clog the spout of the canting. A wax that is too hot will flow too quickly and be uncontrollable. The artisan will often blow into the spout of the canting before applying wax to the cloth in order to clear the canting of any obstructions.

Cap

Cap utilize copper string to make various designsCreating batik is a very time consuming craft. To meet growing demands and make the fabric more affordable to the masses, in the mid-19th century the . cap. (copper stamp - pronounced chop) was developed. This invention enabled a higher volume of batik production compared to the traditional method which entailed the tedious application of wax by hand with a canting.
Each cap is a copper block that makes up a design unit. Cap are made of 1.5 cm wide copper stripes that are bent into the shape of the design. Smaller pieces of wire are used for the dots. When complete, the pattern of copper strips is attached to the handle.
The cap must be precisely made. This is especially true if the pattern is to be stamped on both sides of the fabric. It is imperative that both sides of the cap are identical so that pattern will be consistent.
Sometimes cap are welded between two grids like pieces of copper that will make a base for the top and theApplying wax with cap bottom. The block is cut in half at the center so the pattern on each half is identical. Cap vary in size and shape depending on the pattern they are needed for. It is seldom that a cap will exceed 24 cm in diameter, as this would make the handling too difficult.
Men usually handle the application of wax using cap. A piece of cloth that involves a complicated design could require as many as ten sets of cap. The usage of cap, as opposed to canting, to apply the wax has reduced the amount of time to make a cloth.
Today, batik quality is defined by cap or tulis, the second meaning hand-drawn designs which use a canting, or kombinasi, a combination of the two techniques.

Dyes

Traditional colors for Central Javanese batik were made from natural ingredients and consisted primarily of beige, blue, brown and black.
The oldest color that was used in traditional batik making was blue. The color was made from the leaves of the Indigo plant. The leaves were mixed with molasses sugar and lime and left to stand overnight. Sometimes sap from the Tinggi tree was added to act as a fixing agent. Lighter blue was achieved by leaving the cloth in the dye bath for short periods of time. For darker colors, the cloth would be left in the dye bath for days and may have been submerged up to 8 - 10 times a day.
In traditional batik, the second color applied was a brown color called soga. The color could range from light yellow to a dark brown. The dye came from the bark of the Soga tree. Another color that was traditionally used was a dark red color called mengkuda. This dye was created from the leaves of the Morinda Citrifolia.
The final hue depended on how long the cloth was soaked in the dye bath and how often it was dipped. Skilled artisans can create many variations of these traditional colors. Aside from blue, green would be achieved by mixing blue with yellow; purple was obtained by mixing blue and red. The soga brown color mixed with indigo would produce a dark blue-black color.

Design Process

The outline of the pattern is blocked out onto the cloth, traditionally with charcoal or graphite. Traditional batik designs utilize patterns handed down over the generations. It is very seldom that an artisan is so skilled that he can work from memory and would not need to draw an outline of the pattern before applying the wax. Often designs are traced from stencils or patterns called pola. Another method of tracing a pattern onto a cloth is by laying the cloth on a glass table that is illuminated from below which casts a shadow of the pattern onto the cloth. The shadow is then traced with a pencil. In large batik factories today, men usually are in charge of drawing the patterns onto the cloth. Click here to see the step-by-step process of making batik.

Waxing

Once the design is drawn out onto the cloth it is then ready to be waxed. Wax is applied to the cloth over the areas Applying wax with a Cantingof the design that the artisan wishes to remain the original color of the cloth. Normally this is white or cream.
Female workers sit on a low stool or on a mat to apply the wax with a canting. The fabric that they are working on is draped over light bamboo frames called gawangan to allow the freshly applied wax to cool and harden. The wax is heated in the wajan until it is of the desired consistency. The artisan then dips her canting into the wax to fill the bowl of the canting.
Artisans use the wax to retrace the pencil outline on the fabric. A small drop cloth is kept on the woman. s lap to protect her from hot dripping wax. The stem of the canting is held with the right hand in a horizontal position to prevent any accidental spillage, which greatly reduces the value of the final cloth. The left hand is placed behind the fabric for support. The spout does not touch the fabric, but it held just above the area the artisan is working on. To ensure the pattern is well defined, batik is waxed on both sides. True tulis batik is reversible, as the pattern should be identical on both sides.
The most experienced artisans normally do first waxings. Filling in of large areas may be entrusted to less experienced artisans. Mistakes are very difficult to correct. If wax is accidentally spilt on the cloth, the artisan will try to remove the unwanted wax by sponging it with hot water. Then a heated iron rod with a curved end is used to try and lift off the remaining wax. Spilled wax can never be completely removed so it is imperative that the artisans are very careful.
Applying wax with a copper capIf the cap method is utilized, this procedure is normally done by men. The cap are dipped into melted wax. Just under the surface of the melted wax is a folded cloth approximately 30 centimeters square. When this cloth is saturated with wax it acts like a stamp pad. The cap is pressed into the fabric until the design side of the cap is coated with wax. The saturated cap is then stamped onto the fabric, leaving the design of the cap. This process is repeated until the entire cloth is covered. Often cap and canting methods are combined on the same piece of cloth.
Better quality batik may be waxed utilizing canting in one part of Indonesia and then sent to another part of Indonesia where the cap part of the process is completed. On better quality cap fabric great care is taken to match the pattern exactly. Lower grade batik is characterized by overlapping lines or lightened colored lines indicating the cap was not applied correctly.

Dyeing

After the initial wax has been applied, the fabric is ready for the first dye bath. Traditionally dying was done in earthenware tubs. Today most batik factories use large concrete vats. Above the vats are ropes with pulleys that the fabric is draped over after it has been dipped into the dye bath.
The waxed fabric is immersed in the dye bath of the first color. The amount of time it is left in the bath determines the hue of the color; darker colors require longer periods or numerous immersions. The fabric is then put into a cold water bath to harden the wax.
Dye BathWhen the desired color has been achieved and the fabric has dried, wax is reapplied over the areas that the artisan wishes to maintain the first dye color or another color at a later stage in the dying process.
When an area that has been covered with wax previously needs to be exposed so that it can be dyed, the applied wax is scraped away with a small knife. The area is then sponged with hot water and resized with rice starch before it is re-immersed in the subsequent dye bath.
If a marble effect is desired, the wax is intentionally cracked before being placed in the dye bath. The dye seeps into the tiny cracks that create the fine lines that are characteristic of batik. Traditionally, cracks were a sign of inferior cloth especially on indigo color batik. On brown batik, however, the marble effect was accepted.
The number of colors in batik represents how many times it was immersed in the dye bath and how many times wax had to be applied and removed. A multicolored batik represents a lot more work that a single or two-color piece. Numerous dye processes are usually reflected in the price of the cloth. Nowadays, chemical dyes have pretty much replaced traditional dyes, so colors are endless and much more liberally used.

Special Treatments to the Batik Cloth

Prada or Gold Cloth

For special occasions, batik was formerly decorated with gold lead or gold dust. This cloth is known as Prada cloth. Gold leaf was used in the Jogjakarta and Surakarta area. The Central Javanese used gold dust to decorate their Prada cloth. It was applied to the fabric using a handmade glue consisting of egg white or linseed oil and yellow earth. The gold would remain on the cloth even after it had been washed. The gold could follow the design of the cloth or could take on its own design. Older batiks could be given a new look by applying gold to them. Gold decorated cloth is still made today; however, gold paint has replaced gold dust and leaf.

Batik Designs

Although there are thousands of different batik designs, particular designs have traditionally been associated with traditional festivals and specific religious ceremonies. Previously, it was thought that certain cloth had mystical powers to ward off ill fortune, while other pieces could bring good luck.
Wedding Batik
Certain batik designs are reserved for brides and bridegrooms as well as their families. Other designs are reserved for the Sultan and his family or their attendants. A person's rank could be determined by the pattern of the batik he/she wore.
In general, there are two categories of batik design: geometric motifs (which tend to be the earlier designs) and free form designs, which are based on stylized patterns of natural forms or imitations of a woven texture. Nitik is the most famous design illustrating this effect.
Certain areas are known for a predominance of certain designs. Central Javanese designs are influenced by traditional patterns and colors. Batik from the north coast of Java, near Pekalongan and Cirebon, have been greatly influenced by Chinese culture and effect brighter colors and more intricate flower and cloud designs.
High fashion designs drawn on silk are very popular with wealthy Indonesians. These exceptionally high-quality pieces can take months to create and costs hundreds of dollars.

Kawung

Kawung DesignKawung is another very old design consisting of intersecting circles, known in Java since at least the thirteenth century. This design has appeared carved into the walls of many temples throughout Java such as Prambanan near Jogjakarta and Kediri in East Java. For many years, this pattern was reserved for the royal court of the Sultan of Jogjakarta. The circles are sometimes embellished inside with two or more small crosses or other ornaments such as intersecting lines or dots. It has been suggested that the ovals might represent flora such as the fruit of the kapok (silk cotton) tree or the aren (sugar palm).

Ceplok

Ceplok DesignCeplok is a general name for a whole series of geometric designs based on squares, rhombs, circles, stars, etc. Although fundamentally geometric, ceplok can also represent abstractions and stylization of flowers, buds, seeds and even animals. Variations in color intensity can create illusions of depth and the overall effect is not unlike medallion patterns seen on Turkish tribal rugs. The Indonesian population is largely Muslim, a religion that forbids the portrayal of animal and human forms in a realistic manner. To get around this prohibition, the batik worker does not attempt to express this matter in a realistic form. A single element of the form is chosen and then that element is repeated again and again in the pattern.

Parang

Parang DesignParang was once used exclusively by the royal courts of Central Java. It has several suggested meanings such as 'rugged rock', 'knife pattern' or 'broken blade'. The Parang design consists of slanting rows of thick knife-like segments running in parallel diagonal bands. Parang usually alternated with narrower bands in a darker contrasting color. These darker bands contain another design element, a line of lozenge-shaped motifs call mlinjon. There are many variations of this basic striped pattern with its elegant sweeping lines, with over forty parang designs recorded. The most famous is the 'Parang Rusak' which in its most classical form consisting of rows of softly folded parang. This motif also appears in media other than batik, including woodcarving and as ornamentation on gamelan musical instruments.

Washing Batik

Harsh chemical detergents, dryers and drying of fabrics in the sun may fade the colors in batik. Traditionally dyed batiks should be washed in soap for sensitive fabrics, such as Woolite, Silky or Halus. Fine batik in Indonesia is washed with the lerak fruit which can be purchased at most traditional markets. A bottled version of this detergent is also available at batik stores. Be sure to line dry batik in a shady area and not in direct sunlight.

Modern Batik

Modern batik, although having strong ties to traditional batik, utilizes linear treatment of leaves, flowers and birds. These batiks tend to be more dependent on the dictates of the designer rather than the stiff guidelines that have guided traditional craftsmen. This is also apparent in the use of color that modern designers use. Artisans are no Modern Batiklonger dependent on traditional (natural) dyes, as chemical dyes can produce any color that they wish to achieve. Modern batik still utilizes canting and cap to create intricate designs.
Fashion designers such as Iwan Tirta have aggressively introduced batik into the world fashion scene. They have done much to promote the Indonesian art of batik dress, in its traditional and modern forms.
The horizon of batik is continuing to widen. While the design process has remained basically the same over the last century, the process shows great progress in recent decades. Traditionally, batik was sold in 2 1/4 meter lengths used for kain panjang or sarong in traditional dress. Now, not only is batik used as a material to clothe the human body, its uses also include furnishing fabrics, heavy canvas wall hangings, tablecloths and household accessories. Batik techniques are used by famous artists to create batik paintings which grace many homes and offices.
Fine quality handmade batik is very expensive and the production of such works is very limited. However, in a Modern Batikworld that is dominated by machines there is an increasing interest in materials that have been handmade. Batik is one of these materials.
During your stay in Indonesia, take advantage of your time here to learn more about the fascinating world of batik. Have a batik dress or men's business shirt made for you by a seamstress or tailor. Visit batik factories in Jogjakarta, Surakarta or Pekalongan to see for yourself how the intricate process is conducted or ask questions of batik artisans giving demonstrations in stores such as Sarinah or Pasaraya in Jakarta. You will come away with sense of wonder over the time, effort and patience put into the creation of each batik cloth. You too may soon grow to love the distinctive waxy smell of batik and your batik acquisitions will provide many memories of your stay in Indonesia. Your support of the batik industry will also ensure that this art form grows to even greater peaks.

Batik Home Furnishings

One of the distinct pleasures of living in (or visiting) Indonesia is the opportunity to purchase some truly magnificent home furnishings made of batik. As the fabric is truly unique to Indonesia... this is definitely the best place to purchase batik! Batik factories can product batik to your order, with custom colors and designs in large rolls, ready to use for your home decoration projects. The 100% cotton fabric is usually preshrunk in the batik dying process and other fabrics are usually available with the batik design, should your design requirements warrant. Higher end shops also have design consultants who can help you with the layout of the room you are planning to design with your batik fabric and work with you on additional furnishings (pillows, bed covers, and cushions) to complete your color scheme.


http://www.expat.or.id/info/batik.html